Jimsonweed
Datura stramonium L.



Images above: Upper left: Jimsonweed flower (Randall Prostak, University of Massachusetts). Upper right: Jimsonweed plant with immature fruit (Antonio DiTommaso, Cornell University). Bottom: Jimsonweed seedling (Antonio DiTommaso, Cornell University).
Identification
Other common names: stramonium, Jamestown-weed, thorn-apple, mad-apple, stinkwort, angel's-trumpet, devil's-trumpet, dewtry, whiteman's-weed, purple thornapple
Family: nightshade family, Solanaceae
Habit: Erect, branched, summer annual herb.
Description: The seedling is large, with cotyledons 1.2-1.6” (3-4 cm) long by 0.2” (0.5 cm) wide, lance shaped, hairless, and thick. Cotyledons have an obvious vein and the petioles have hairs on the upper surface. The seed coat often remains on the cotyledon tips after emergence. The seedling stem gradually turns purple, starting at the base. The first pair of true leaves is opposite, egg to triangle shaped with non-toothed, entire edges, and strongly veined on the underside; the first true leaves appear gray-green due to very small, scattered hairs on the puckered leaf surface. Other young leaves show edge irregularity and have flat hairs only above veins and on the leaf stalk. Mature plants reach 1-6 ft (0.3-1.8 m) in height and branch in upper portions. Stems are purple, 1-2” (2.5-5 cm) thick, and have either no hairs or very small, inconspicuous hairs. Leaves are alternate, oval to triangular in outline, dark green, hairless, strongly veined, and 2-6” (5-15 cm) long by 1-4” (2.5-10 cm) wide. Edges are irregularly toothed resembling an oak leaf. The taproot system is shallow, broad, thick, and highly divided. The entire plant has a strong, unpleasant odor. Trumpet-shaped, white or purple, solitary flowers sit on stalks arising from leaf-stem junctures on upper plant portions. Flowers have 5 green, ridged 1.4-1.8” (3.6-4.6 cm) long sepals covering the base of the 5 fused petals. The petals are 2-4” (5-10 cm) long and 1-2” (2.5-5 cm) wide; each petal tip has a pointed, thin projection that extends 0.2-0.3” (0.5-0.8 cm) beyond the rim of the flower. Each plant produces up to 50 egg shaped, 0.8-1.2” (2-3 cm) long by 0.75” (1.9 cm) wide, green fruit capsules; the entire fruit is covered with 0.13-0.4” (0.3-1 cm) long prickles and spines. The capsule turns brown and splits into four chambers. Capsules of vigorous plants contain approximately 600-700 seeds. Seeds are kidney shaped, flat, black, wrinkled, and 0.13-0.14” (0.3-0.4 cm) long.
Similar species: Seedlings of common cocklebur (Xanthium strumarium L.) can be differentiated from those of jimsonweed by their lack of odor and larger, 2” (5 cm) long by 0.4” (1 cm) wide cotyledons. Young common cocklebur leaves are covered with small, rigid hairs and older leaves do not resemble oak leaves.
Management
Because this weed is extraordinarily responsive to nutrients, avoiding over-fertilization, particularly with P and N, is crucial for long term control. Keep this species controlled around manure and compost storage areas to avoid spreading seeds into fields. Avoid incorporating seeds into the soil after crop harvest, if possible, because jimsonweed is particularly susceptible to loss of viability when the seeds are left exposed on the soil surface.
Jimsonweed is relatively intolerant of crop competition. Its growth form changes when subject to competition, with the plant becoming less branched and sloughing the lower leaves (Regnier and Stoller 1989). Even though plants commonly emerge above the canopy of mid-sized crops like soybean, heavy competition during early growth greatly decreases total productivity and seed set (Regnier and Stoller 1989, Henry and Bauman1991). Thus, steps that increase the competitive ability of the crop are highly desirable. Since most of the jimsonweed plant lies above the canopy of most crops, topping the plants with a mower should greatly decrease both competition with the crop and weed seed production. Seeds are retained on the plant for an extended period, so this species is a good candidate for control by weed seed harvesting systems (Schwartz-Lazaro et al. 2021).
Because seedlings commonly emerge from below the working depth of rotary hoes and tine weeders, these implements are relatively ineffective for controlling jimsonweed. Tine weeding should focus on maximizing lateral movement of soil to bury seedlings. In crops which tolerate hilling, bury young seedlings as early as crop growth will permit, since jimsonweed makes rapid vertical growth. Jimsonweed abundance increased in an organic corn-soybean rotation based on rotary hoe and sweep cultivation for control, but did not increase when the rotation was diversified with winter wheat and alfalfa (Teasdale et al. 2019).
No-tillage and cover crop surface residue can reduce jimsonweed emergence (Zhang et al. 1999). Both conditions reduce soil temperature and light at the soil surface, thus depriving jimsonweed seeds of the relatively warm temperatures and light they require for germination.
Ecology
Origin and distribution: The origin of jimsonweed is uncertain, but most likely is in tropical South or Central America, although it may have originated in Asia. It now occurs throughout the tropical and temperate regions of the world. It is widespread in southeastern Canada and throughout the U.S.A. except for the coldest parts of the mid- and far West. (Weaver and Warwick 1984)
Seed weight: 5.6 mg (EFBI), 6.3 mg (Zhao et al. 2011), 6.5 (Shergill et al. 2020), 6.8 mg (Gaba et al. 2019), 7.2-7.8 mg (Gardarin 2010, Stoller and Wax 1973), 8.2 mg (Benvenuti et al. 2001), 11.7 mg (Reisman-Berman et al. 1991), and 1.8 to 2.4 mg for populations at the northern edge of the species range (Weaver et al. 1985). Seed germination generally increases as seed weight increases, with weights over 6 mg per seed providing greatest germination (Pawlak et al. 1990, Weaver et al. 1985).
Dormancy and germination: A variable percentage of the seeds are dormant when dispersed from the parent plant (Weaver and Warwick 1984). Seeds are kept dormant by a combination of a hard seed coat and germination inhibitor that eventually washes out of the seed (Gill 1938, Weaver and Warwick 1984). Seeds buried at 8” (20 cm) had no dormancy when exhumed, whereas seeds buried at 2” (5 cm) maintained dormancy for 1 year before losing dormancy after exposure to cold winter temperatures (Reisman-Berman et al. 1991). A large day/night temperature fluctuation of 90/54 °F effectively overcame dormancy whereas a smaller fluctuation of 90/81 °F did not. (Reisman-Berman 1991). Seeds buried in soil at 41-50 °F (5-10 °C) became sensitized to germinate when exposed even briefly to light (Benvenuti and Macchia 1998). In most situations, light is a critical factor in triggering germination (Benvenuti and Macchia 1998, Weaver and Warwick 1984). Reburial of photosensitized seeds can induce dormancy, probably due to volatile compounds in the soil that increase in proportion to depth (Benvenuti and Macchia 1998). Base temperature for germination range from 46 to 52 °F (8 to 11 °C) (Loddo et al. 2013). Seeds germinate best at 68-95 °F (20-35 °C) with alternating daily temperatures being most stimulatory (Weaver and Warwick 1984). Germination of jimsonweed is reduced by low moisture conditions, and by more than germination of many other weed species (Hoveland and Buchanan 1973).
Seed longevity: In one experiment, over 91% of seeds buried at 22” (55 cm) survived more than 39 years (Toole and Brown 1946). Seeds did not lose viability when buried 2-8” (5-20 cm) for 22 months in Israel (Reisman-Berman et al. 1991). Most seeds remained viable after burial at 8” (20 cm) for 17 years at one location, but all lost viability after 3 years at another location in Nebraska (Burnside et al. 1996). First year assessment of seed mortality in these experiments indicated an annual loss rate of 14% (Toole and Brown 1946) and 6% (Burnside et al. 1996). Based on an experiment in which the seeds were buried at 4” (10 cm), we calculated an average loss per year of about 50% (Stoller and Wax 1974). Annual tillage without allowing seed replacement virtually eliminated a jimsonweed seed bank in six years (Schwerzel and Thomas 1979). Burial of jimsonweed seeds by fall tillage promotes seed survival (Weaver and Warwick 1984). The wide range in longevity reported for this species may be related to differences in the duration of hard seed coat integrity.
Season of emergence: Most seedlings emerge from mid-spring to early summer, but some seedlings continue to appear throughout the summer following rain (Doll 2002, Stoller and Wax 1973). Jimsonweed has been categorized as "middle-emerging" relative to other weeds (Werle et al. 2014).
Emergence depth: Seedlings emerge well from 0.4-2” (1 to 5 cm), a few can emerge from as deep as 4” (10 cm), but none from 6” (15 cm) (Benvenuti et al. 2001, Reisman-Berman et al. 1991, Stoller and Wax 1973, Weaver and Warwick 1984). Seeds on the soil surface have reduced germination (Stoller and Wax 1973, Weaver and Warwick 1984). Lower emergence from 1.6” (4 cm) in clay than in sandy soils was related to poorer gas exchange in clay soils (Benvenuti 2003).
Photosynthetic pathway: C3 (Weaver and Warwick 1984)
Sensitivity to frost: Jimsonweed is frost sensitive. Seeds in immature capsules do not continue to mature after frost. (Warwick and Weaver 1984)
Drought tolerance: Jimsonweed can survive in sandy pastures and similar dry sites, but thrives best on fertile soil and high rainfall (Weaver and Warwick 1984). This species was more competitive with crops under above-average rainfall than under drought conditions (Weaver 1986). It has a higher rate of water loss and greater physiological sensitivity to water stress than other weeds (Patterson and Flint 1983).
Mycorrhiza: There are no reports on the mycorrhizal status of jimsonweed.
Response to fertility: Jimsonweed growth responds strongly to nitrogen. It accumulates higher concentrations of N than most crops (Cavero et al. 1999, Weaver and Warwick 1984). Alkaloid content also increases with N (Weaver and Warwick 1984). It also shows a strong growth response to P and K (Hoveland et al. 1976). In one study, it was the most responsive to P out of ten warm-season weeds (Hoveland et al. 1976). The species is commonly found in nutrient-rich sites like barnyards and around manure piles (Weaver and Warwick 1984). Jimsonweed tolerates soil pH as low as 4.7, but growth is reduced below pH 5.4 (Buchanan et al. 1975).
Soil physical requirements: Jimsonweed does best on good quality agricultural soils but can tolerate a wide range of soil conditions (Weaver and Warwick 1984).
Response to shade: Light shade (25%) stimulates growth of jimsonweed, thereby prompting the plant to grow through partial crop canopies (Cavero et al. 1999). Moderately heavy shade (75%), however, substantially reduces growth.
Sensitivity to disturbance: Cut or trampled plants regenerate from buds near the base of the stem. Immature capsules will continue to ripen on cut branches or uprooted plants. (Weaver and Warwick 1984)
Time from emergence to reproduction: Flowering begins about 5 to 9 weeks after emergence, with the time to flowering less for later emerging plants and for populations from more northerly latitudes (Doll 2002, Weaver et al. 1985). Each flower is open for only one day (Pawlak et al. 1990, Weaver and Warwick 1984). Jimsonweed is indeterminate, so it continues to flower as plants continue growth into late summer. Seeds mature and are capable of germination about one month after fertilization but capsules usually do not open until about 7 weeks after fertilization (Pawlak et al. 1990, Weaver and Warwick 1984). In Delaware, plants emerging later than early July failed to produce mature capsules (Holm et al. 1997).
Pollination: Jimsonweed usually self-pollinates, but occasionally plants may be cross-pollinated by insects (Bello-Bedoy and Núñez-Farfán 2010, Weaver and Warwick 1984). Inbreeding depression of seed production can occur, suggesting the need for outcrossing to maintain vigorous populations (Bello-Bedoy and Núñez-Farfán 2010).
Reproduction: Vigorous plants at low densities produce up to 50 capsules and 30,000 seeds per plant (Bello-Bedoy and Núñez-Farfán 2010, Scott et al. 2000, Weaver 1986, Weaver and Warwick 1984). In contrast, plants stressed by competition may only produce 1,300-1,500 seeds (Karimmojeni et al. 2010, Weaver and Warwick 1984). Only 5% of seeds shattered by the time of soybean harvest in Maryland (Schwartz-Lazaro et al. 2021).
Dispersal: Seeds are dispersed by combines and in soil clinging to tillage implements, tires, shoes and livestock. Seeds can contaminate grain and cover crop seed. Several introductions through contaminated soybean seed have been reported. The seeds and capsules float well and disperse along streams and irrigation ditches. The spines on the capsules are not effective for dispersing the seed (Holm et al. 1997). (Weaver and Warwick 1984)
Common natural enemies: Three-lined potato beetles (Lema trivittata and L. trilineata) destroy seedlings and can cause severe defoliation of larger plants (Weaver and Warwick 1984). Greater damage to foliage from L. trilineata and other herbivores was observed in inbred than in outcrossed populations (Bello-Bedoy and Núñez-Farfán 2010).
Palatability: Both leaves and seeds are highly toxic to humans and livestock due to alkaloids and sometimes nitrate (Weaver and Warwick 1984). Many people have died from grain contaminated with jimsonweed seeds. Since the foliage is extremely unpalatable and poisoning causes loss of appetite, damage to grazing livestock is usually limited (Burrows and Tyre 2006).
References
- Bello-Bedoy, R., and J. Núñez-Farfán. 2010. Cost of inbreeding in resistance to herbivores in Datura stramonium. Annals of Botany 105:747–753.
- Benvenuti, S. 2003. Soil texture involvement in germination and emergence of buried weed seeds. Agronomy Journal 95:191–198.
- Benvenuti, S., and M. Macchia. 1998. Phytochrome-mediated germination control of Datura stramonium L. seeds after burial. Weed Research 38:199-205.
- Benvenuti, S., M. Macchia, and S. Miele. 2001. Quantitative analysis of emergence of seedlings from buried weed seeds with increasing soil depth. Weed Science 49:528-535.
- Buchanan, G. A., C. S. Hoveland, and M. C. Harris. 1975. Response of weeds to soil pH. Weed Science 23:473-477.
- Burnside, O. C., R. G. Wilson, S. Weisberg, and K. G. Hubbard. 1996. Seed longevity of 41 weed species buried 17 years in eastern and western Nebraska. Weed Science 44:74-86.
- Burrows, G. E. and D. J. Tyrl. 2006. Handbook of Toxic Plants of North America. Blackwell: Ames, IA.
- Cavero, J., C. Zaragoza, M. L. Suso, and A. Pardo. 1999. Competition between maize and Datura stramonium in an irrigated field under semi-arid conditions. Weed Research 39:225-240.
- Doll, J. 2002. Knowing when to look for what: Weed emergence and flowering sequences in Wisconsin. http://128.104.239.6/uw_weeds/extension/articles/weedemerge.htm
- EFBI. Ecological Flora of the British Isles http://ecoflora.org.uk/
- Gaba, S., P. Deroulers, F. Bretagnolle, and V. Bretagnolle. 2019. Lipid content drives weed seed consumption by ground beetles (Coleoptera, Carabidae) within the smallest seeds. Weed Research 59:170-179.
- Gardarin, A., C. Dürr, M. R. Mannino, H. Busset, and N. Colbach. 2010. Seed mortality in the soil is related to seed coat thickness. Seed Science Research 20:243-256.
- Gill, N. T. 1938. The viability of weed seeds at various stages of maturity. Annals of Biology 25:447-456.
- Henry, W. T., and T. T. Bauman. 1991. Interference between soybean (Glycine max) and jimsonweed (Datura stramonium) in Indiana. Weed Technology 5:759-764.
- Holm, L., J. Doll, E. Holm, J.Pancho, and J. Herberger. 1997. World Weeds: Natural Histories and Distribution. John Wiley, New York.
- Hoveland, C. S., and G. A. Buchanan. 1973. Weed seed germination under simulated drought. Weed Science 21:322-324.
- Hoveland, C. S., G. A. Buchanan, and M. C. Harris. 1976. Response of weeds to soil phosphorus and potassium. Weed Science 24:194-201.
- Karimmojeni, H., H. Rahimian Mashhadi, H. M. Alizadeh, R. D. Cousens, and M. Beheshitian Mesgaran. 2010. Interference between maize and Xanthium strumarium or Datura stramonium. Weed Research 50:253-261.
- Loddo, D., E. Sousa, R. Masin, I. Calha, G. Zanin, C. Fernández-Quintanilla, and J. Dorado. 2013. Estimation and comparison of base temperatures for germination of European populations of velvetleaf (Abutilon theophrasti) and jimsonweed (Datura stramonium). Weed Science 61:443-451.
- Patterson, D. T., and E. P. Flint. 1983. Comparative water relations, photosynthesis, and growth of soybean (Glycine max) and seven associated weeds. Weed Science 31:318-323.
- Pawlek, J. A., D. S. Murray, and B. S. Smith. 1990. Influence of capsule age on germination of non-dormant jimsonweed (Datura stramonium) seed. Weed Technology 4:31-34.
- Reisman-Berman, O., J. Kigel, and B. Rubin. 1991. Dormancy patterns in buried seeds of Datura ferox and D. stramonium. Canadian Journal of Botany 69:173-179.
- Regnier, E. E., and E. Stoller. 1989. The effects of soybean (Glycine max) interference on the canopy architecture of common cocklebur (Xanthium strumarium), jimsonweed (Datura stramonium) and velvetleaf (Abutilon theophrasti). Weed Science 37:187-195.
- Schwartz-Lazaro, L. M., L. S. Shergill, J. A. Evans, M. V. Bagavathiannan, S. C. Beam, M. D. Bish, J. A. Bond, K. W. Bradley, W. S. Curran, A. S. Davis, W. J. Everman, M. L. Flessner, S. C. Haring, N. R. Jordan, N. E. Korres, J. L. Lindquist, J. K. Norsworthy, T. L. Sanders, L. E. Steckel, M. J. VanGessel, B. Young, and S. B. Mirsky. 2021. Seed-shattering phenology at soybean harvest of economically important weeds in multiple regions of the United States. Part 1: Broadleaf species. Weed Science 69:95–103.
- Schwerzel, P. J. and P. E. L. Thomas. 1979. Effects of cultivation frequency on the survival of seeds of six weeds commonly found in Zimbabwe Rhodesia. Ximbabwe Rhodesia Agricultural Journal 76:195-199.
- Scott, G. H., S. D. Askew, J. W. Wilcut, and C. Brownie. 2000. Datura stramonium interference and seed rain in Gossypium hirsutum. Weed Science 48:613-617.
- Shergill, L. S., K. Bejleri, A. Davis, Mirsky S. B. 2020. Fate of weed seeds after impact mill processing in midwestern and mid-Atlantic United States. Weed Science 68:92–97.
- Stoller, E. W., and L. M. Wax. 1973. Periodicity of germination and emergence of some annual weeds. Weed Science 21:574-580.
- Stoller, E. W., and L. M. Wax. 1974. Dormancy changes and fate of some annual weed seeds in the soil. Weed Science 22:151-155.
- Teasdale, J.R., S.B. Mirsky, and M.A. Cavigelli. 2019. Weed species and traits associated with organic grain crop rotations in the mid-Atlantic region. Weed Science 67:595–604.
- Toole, E. H., and E. Brown. 1946. Final results of the Duvel buried seed experiment. Journal of Agricultural Research 72:201-210.
- Weaver, S. E. 1986. Factors affecting threshold levels and seed production of jimsonweed (Datura stramonium L.) in soybeans (Glycine max (L.) Merr.). Weed Research 26:215-223.
- Weaver, S. E., V. A. Dirks, and S. I. Warwick. 1985. Variation and climatic adaptation in northern populations of Datura stramonium. Canadian Journal of Botany 63:1303-1308.
- Weaver, S. E. and S. L. Warwick. 1984. The biology of Canadian Weeds. 64. Datura stramonium L. Canadian Journal of Plant Science 64:979-991.
- Werle, R., L. D. Sandell, D. D. Buhler, R. G. Hartzler, and J. L. Lindquist. 2014. Predicting emergence of 23 summer annual weed species. Weed Science 62:267-279.
- Zhang, J., M. L. Salas, N. R. Jordan, and S. C. Weller. 1999. Biorational approaches to managing Datura stramonium. Weed Science 47:750-756.
- Zhao, L-P, G.-L. Wu, and J.-M. Cheng. 2011. Seed mass and shape are related to persistence in a sandy soil in northern China. Seed Science Research 21:47-53