Ruhşan Özdemir Çifçi, a 2023-24 Humphrey Fellow at Cornell, is committed to addressing sustainability and food access challenges across Türkiye. During her Humphrey Fellowship, she completed her Professional Affiliation at the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI), where she conducted research on the environmental impacts of climate change and food loss and waste. In this field note, she walks readers through key insights on food and loss waste (FLW), and the potential to boost sustainability and reduce carbon emissions. Ruhşan, who wrote her thesis on food loss and its causes in fresh fruits and vegetables in Türkiye, has also undertaken numerous successful projects aimed at raising awareness at various stages from primary production to wholesale, retail, and the consumer. After her year at Cornell, Ruhşan will now return to her role as District Director of Agriculture and Forestry at Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry where she oversees all activities related to food safety and agriculture in one of Türkiye's largest districts.
Introduction
A significant portion of the food produced for human consumption—approximately one-third—never reaches consumers, being lost or wasted along the supply chain. This issue arises from various factors, including inadequate infrastructure, poor storage facilities, insufficient transportation, and lack of knowledge and consumer habits. Concurrently, global challenges such as population growth, shifting eating habits, and environmental constraints make food security a critical agenda item for countries striving for sustainability (1).
The Scale and Causes of FLW
In its 2011 report, FAOdetermined that approximately one-third of the food produced for human consumption worldwide each year never reaches consumers (2). This is not only means a missed opportunity for the economy and food security, but also a waste of all the natural resources notably water sources, land, energy, and labor used for growing, processing, packaging, transporting, and marketing of food (3).
While the general causes of food loss and waste (FLW) and the specific products most affected are well-documented, precise quantification of FLW levels in many countries remains elusive. Only four G20 countries (Australia, Japan, UK, and USA) and the European Union have food waste estimates suitable for tracking progress to 2030 (6). It is observed that efforts to prevent FLW fail at the production stage in developing countries and at the consumption stage in developed countries. Despite a notable increase in scientific research and publications on this topic over the past 15 years, the integration of these findings into national policies remains comparatively slow.
Measurement and Data on FLW
Within the framework of "Sustainable Consumption and Production," one of the United Nations'2030 Development Goals, the objective of halving global food waste per capita at the retail and consumer levels and reducing food losses along the food supply chain by 2030 has been established (5). The target is divided into two components: Food Loss and Food Waste, each with separate indicators and mandates. The FAO, under its mandate, developed a methodology for measuring and monitoring progress with indicator SDG 12.3.1a, the Food Loss Index (FLI), which covers losses from harvest up to but not including the retail stage. The FLI tracks changes in losses over time compared to a base year. Meanwhile, the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) oversees indicator SDG 12.3.1b, the Food Waste Index (FWI), which addresses waste at the retail and consumption levels.
In the latest study on the Global Food Loss Index (GFLI) published in 2018, highlights that the imputation model applied to FAO’s data indicates a 6.6% reduction in post-harvest losses from the baseline period of 2004-2006 to 2014 (27). Despite a downward trend observed until 2013, recent years have seen an uptick due to more accurate and comprehensive data becoming available. The results underscore the need for better data to enhance accuracy and inform effective policy intervention (27). When the Global Annual Trend for the years 2016-2020 and 2021 is examined by FAO, it is 13%; 13.3%; with 13.23%, there has been no improvement in reducing food losses since the baseline year globally (8).
According to the Global Food Waste Index Report published by UNEP in 2024, food waste is a market failure that results in the throwing away of more than US$1 trillion worth of food every year. In 2022, global food waste amounted to 1.05 billion tons, representing 19% of the food available to consumers at the retail, food service, and household levels. This is in addition to the 13% of the world's food lost within the supply chain. It is also an environmental failure; food waste generates an estimated 8–10% of global greenhouse gas emissions (including from both loss and waste), and it takes up the equivalent of nearly 30% of the world’s agricultural land. The conversion of natural ecosystems for agriculture has been the leading cause of habitat loss (6).
Addressing FLW requires detailed measurements along the supply chain to identify critical loss points and justify targeted resource allocations. Interventions should align with policy objectives, distinguishing between pressures on natural resources and greenhouse gas emissions (13)
Impact of FLW on food security, climate change, and sustainable development
The concept of food security has evolved from focusing solely on food availability and production to including the physical, socio-cultural, and economic accessibility of food, consumption patterns, and the stability of these factors over time (10). FLW significantly vary across countries with different levels of food security. High and middle-income countries, typically exhibiting very good to good food security, primarily experience FLW due to consumer behavior and poor coordination among food supply chain actors. Common causes include leftover waste, untimely consumption, personal preferences, spoilage, and intentional disposal. In contrast, lower-middle and low-income countries, characterized by moderate to weak food security, face FLW due to financial and managerial constraints, suboptimal harvesting techniques, inadequate storage and cooling facilities, challenging climatic conditions, and deficiencies in infrastructure, packaging, and marketing systems (9).
Although data on waste levels in low-income countries is limited, losses are generally proportionately larger. Well-integrated rural-urban value chains experience lower losses, and as countries develop, these value chains become more integrated, reducing the share of losses. However, as the proportion of income spent on food decreases, waste levels are expected to increase with rising income (13). The United States being at the top of the food waste list, 35 % of the U.S. food supply is lost and waste. Roughly half of this food is wasted during the consumption stage (households and food service) (17). In the EU, Eurostat roughly estimates that around 10% of food made available to EU consumers (at retail, food services and households) may be wasted (20).
The management of FLW in developing countries poses a significant threat to sustainable development, climate action, the circular economy, and food security. Population growth and a rising middle class increase meat, dairy, fruit, and vegetable consumption, complicating FLW management. Enhanced waste management systems are crucial.
Regarding wasted food amounts and carries more embedded effects (carbon and water footprint) throughout the supply chain, the highest environmental impacts are seen in food waste in North America, followed by the EU, East Asia and the Pacific (Australia, New Zealand, Japan, South Korea, China). Sub-Saharan Africa and South and Southeast Asia are the regions with the lowest environmental burden due to food waste (11).
Climate change significantly impacts food and nutrient availability by reducing agricultural productivity. By 2050, crop yields are projected to decrease by 4% to 8%, with potential reductions up to 25%. (14). Projections indicate that, due to population growth, the global demand for food will increase by at least 50% by 2050 compared to 2010 levels (4). Today, in Sub-Saharan Africa, 10-20% of cereal production is lost post-harvest, exacerbating food insecurity, and reducing farmer incomes (16). Therefore, reducing food losses is vital to ensure future food security globally.
Considering that agriculture both impact and is impacted by climate change, efforts to reduce food losses are also important in combating climate change. In Nigeria, 86% of tomatoes are wasted at various supply chain stages, with 41% lost during transportation due to inadequate packaging. Switching from woven baskets to plastic cases could reduce transportation losses from 41% to 5% and lower emissions by 0.02 tCO2e per case annually, thus reducing the greenhouse gas intensity of agricultural production (16). These examples can be replicated globally across various food categories, including grains, vegetables and fruits, meat, and dairy products, respectively.
Case study: "Save Your Food" campaign in Türkiye
To date, many international studies, publications, and movements have been carried out to increase social awareness to reduce food loss and waste. Among these, an exemplary study came from Türkiye with the "Save Your Food" Campaign, launched in 2020 in cooperation with FAO, to combat FLW, increase social awareness and disseminate good practices. According to the analysis results, at the end of the campaign, households across Türkiye saved 80 million dollars annually (27). The campaign's success came from its focus on reducing food waste through regular training on waste management, protecting natural resources, and teaching label literacy to children. It aimed to change consumer behavior and raise awareness across all segments of society.
Conclusion
While millions of people face hunger and malnutrition, preventing food loss and waste, which equals 8-10% of total human-induced greenhouse gas emissions, plays an important role in both mitigating and adapting to the effects of climate change.
To reduce harvest losses among local farmers, product-based studies should be conducted, and incentives to minimize food losses should be included in support policies. Additionally, relevant ministries, NGO’s, institutes should regularly carry out monitoring and measurement activities for critical products and stages.
By reducing the amount of food waste in landfills, it can significantly cut greenhouse gas emissions, prevent resource waste, and create a more sustainable food system. To achieve this, it is essential to raise public awareness by analyzing consumer behavior, including clear shelf-life and label information in national legislation. These measures are among the key solutions to tackling food loss and waste.
